What Is the Broken Windows Theory

The broken windows theory states that visible signs of crime in urban areas lead to further crime. The theory is often associated with the 2000 case of Illinois v. Wardlow, in which the U.S. Supreme Court confirmed that the police, based on the legal doctrine of probable cause, have the authority to detain and physically search, or â€Å"stop-and-frisk,† people in crime-prone neighborhoods who appear to be behaving suspiciously. Key Takeaways: Broken Windows Theory The broken windows theory of criminology holds that visible signs of crime in densely-populated, lower-income urban areas will encourage additional criminal activity.Broken windows neighborhood policing tactics employ heightened enforcement of relatively minor â€Å"quality of life† crimes like loitering, public drinking, and graffiti.The theory has been criticized for encouraging discriminatory police practices, such as unequal enforcement based on racial profiling. Broken Windows Theory Definition In the field of criminology, the broken windows theory holds that lingering visible evidence of crime, anti-social behavior, and civil unrest in densely populated urban areas suggests a lack of active local law enforcement and encourages people to commit further, even more serious crimes. The theory was first suggested in 1982 by social scientist, George L. Kelling in his article, â€Å"Broken Windows: The police and neighborhood safety† published in The Atlantic. Kelling explained the theory as follows: â€Å"Consider a building with a few broken windows. If the windows are not repaired, the tendency is for vandals to break a few more windows. Eventually, they may even break into the building, and if its unoccupied, perhaps become squatters or light fires inside. â€Å"Or consider a pavement. Some litter accumulates. Soon, more litter accumulates. Eventually, people even start leaving bags of refuse from take-out restaurants there or even break into cars.† Kelling based his theory on the results of an experiment conducted by Stanford psychologist Philip Zimbardo in 1969. In his experiment, Zimbardo parked an apparently disabled and abandoned car in a low-income area of the Bronx, New York City, and a similar car in an affluent Palo Alto, California neighborhood. Within 24 hours, everything of value had been stolen from the car in the Bronx. Within a few days, vandals had smashed the car’s windows and ripped out the upholstery. At the same time, the car abandoned in Palo Alto remained untouched for over a week, until Zimbardo himself smashed it with a sledgehammer. Soon, other people Zimbardo described as mostly well dressed, â€Å"clean-cut† Caucasians joined in the vandalism. Zimbardo concluded that in high-crime areas like the Bronx, where such abandoned property is commonplace, vandalism and theft occur far faster as the community takes such acts for granted. However, similar crimes can occur in any community when the people’s mutual regard for proper civil behavior is lowered by actions that suggest a general lack of concern. Kelling concluded that by selectively targeting minor crimes like vandalism, public intoxication, and loitering, police can establish an atmosphere of civil order and lawfulness, thus helping to prevent more serious crimes. Broken Windows Policing In1993, New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani and police commissioner William Bratton cited Kelling and his broken windows theory as a basis for implementing a new â€Å"tough-stance† policy aggressively addressing relatively minor crimes seen as negatively affecting the quality of life in the inner-city. Stop and Frisk March - Tens of thousands of New Yorkers participated in a silent march to protest NYPD racial profiling, including the Stop and Frisk program which dissproportionally tarkets young men of color as well as the spying on Muslims as was recently reveiled in news reports. Sunday, June 17, 2012. Corbis via Getty Images / Getty Images Bratton directed NYPD to step up enforcement of laws against crimes like public drinking, public urination, and graffiti. He also cracked down on so-called â€Å"squeegee men,† vagrants who aggressively demand payment at traffic stops for unsolicited car window washings. Reviving a Prohibition-era city ban on dancing in unlicensed establishments, police controversially shuttered many of the city’s night clubs with records of public disturbances. While studies of New York’s crime statistics conducted between 2001 and 2017 suggested that enforcement policies based on the broken windows theory were effective in reducing rates of both minor and serious crimes, other factors may have also contributed to the result. For example, New York’s crime decrease may have simply been part of a nationwide trend that saw other major cities with different policing practices experience similar decreases over the period. In addition, New York City’s 39% drop in the unemployment rate could have contributed to the reduction in crime. In 2005, police in the Boston suburb of Lowell, Massachusetts, identified 34 â€Å"crime hot spots† fitting the broken windows theory profile. In 17 of the spots, police made more misdemeanor arrests, while other city authorities cleared trash, fixed streetlights, and enforced building codes. In the other 17 spots, no changes in routine procedures were made. While the areas given special attention saw a 20% reduction in police calls, a study of the experiment concluded that simply cleaning up the physical environment had been more effective than an increase in misdemeanor arrests. Today, however, five major U.S. cities—New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, and Denver—all acknowledge employing at least some neighborhood policing tactics based on Kelling’s broken windows theory. In all of these cities, police stress aggressive enforcement of minor misdemeanor laws. Critics Despite its popularity in major cities, police policy based on the broken windows theory is not without its critics, who question both its effectiveness and fairness of application. Demonstraters storm the Macys on 34th Street protesting the Staten Island, New York grand jurys decision not to indict a police officer involved in the chokehold death of Eric Garner in July on December 5, 2014 in New York City. The grand jury declined to indict New York City Police Officer Daniel Pantaleo in Garners death. Andrew Burton / Getty Images In 2005, University of Chicago Law School professor Bernard Harcourt published a study finding no evidence that broken windows policing actually reduces crime. â€Å"We don’t deny that the ‘broken windows’ idea seems compelling,† wrote Harcourt. â€Å"The problem is that it doesn’t seem to work as claimed in practice.† Specifically, Harcourt contended that crime data from New York City’s 1990s application of broken windows policing had been misinterpreted. Though the NYPD had realized greatly reduced crime rates in the broken windows enforcement areas, the same areas had also been the areas worst affected by the crack-cocaine epidemic that caused citywide homicide rates to soar. â€Å"Everywhere crime skyrocketed as a result of crack, there were eventual declines once the crack epidemic ebbed,† Harcourt note. â€Å"This is true for police precincts in New York and for cities across the country.† In short, Harcourt contended that New York’s declines in crime during the 1990s were both predictable and would have happened with or without broken windows policing. Harcourt concluded that for most cities, the costs of broken windows policing outweigh the benefits. â€Å"In our opinion, focusing on minor misdemeanors is a diversion of valuable police funding and time from what really seems to help—targeted police patrols against violence, gang activity and gun crimes in the highest-crime ‘hot spots.’† Broken windows policing has also been criticized for its potential to encourage unequal, potentially discriminatory enforcement practices such as racial profiling, too often with disastrous results. Arising from objections to practices like â€Å"Stop-and-Frisk,† critics point to the case of Eric Garner, an unarmed black man killed by a New York City police officer in 2014. After observing Garner standing on a street corner in a high-crime area of Staten Island, police suspected him of selling â€Å"loosies,† untaxed cigarettes. When, according to the police report, Garner resisted arrest, an officer took him to the ground in a chock hold. An hour later, Garner died in the hospital of what the coroner determined to be homicide resulting from, â€Å"Compression of neck, compression of chest and prone positioning during physical restraint by police.† After a grand jury failed to indict the officer involved, anti-police protests broke out in several cities. Since then, and due to the deaths of other unarmed black men accused of minor crimes predominantly by white police officers, more sociologists and criminologists have questioned the effects of broken windows theory policing. Critics argue that it is racially discriminatory, as police statistically tend to view, and thus, target, non-whites as suspects in low-income, high-crime areas. According to Paul Larkin, Senior Legal Research Fellow at the Heritage Foundation, established historic evidence shows that persons of color are more likely than whites to be detained, questioned, searched, and arrested by police. Larkin suggests that this happens more often in areas chosen for broken windows-based policing due to a combination of: the individual’s race, police officers being tempted to stop minority suspects because they statistically appear to commit more crimes, and the tacit approval of those practices by police officials. Sources and Further Reference Wilson, James Q; Kelling, George L (Mar 1982), â€Å"Broken Windows: The police and neighborhood safety.† The Atlantic.Harcourt, Bernard E. â€Å"Broken Windows: New Evidence from New York City a Five-City Social Experiment.† University of Chicago Law Review (June 2005).Fagan, Jeffrey and Davies, Garth. â€Å"Street Stops and Broken Windows.† Fordham Urban Law Journal (2000).Taibbi, Matt. â€Å"The Lessons of the Eric Garner Case.† Rolling Stone (November 2018).Herbert, Steve; Brown, Elizabeth (September 2006). â€Å"Conceptions of Space and Crime in the Punitive Neoliberal City.† Antipode.Larkin, Paul. â€Å"Flight, Race, and Terry Stops: Commonwealth v.Warren.† The Heritage Foundation.

The Extinction of Penguins Free Essays

Emperor Penguins have been around for millions of years. Although they are a type of bird they can not fly. They walk, slide on their stomachs, or swim. We will write a custom essay sample on The Extinction of Penguins or any similar topic only for you Order Now They can swim up to nine kilometers an hour. That is faster than an average person can run. Emperor Penguins can hold their breath over twenty minutes and dive over eighteen hundred feet. Another interesting fact about them is that they show no aggression towards humans. The real question is though whether or not Emperor Penguins are on their way to extinction? Some of the reasons why we may think this would be climate change, depletion in food supply, pollution, tagging, and their predators. Climate change is the reason for the Emperor Penguin population to decline by fifty percent over the past fifty years. Penguins use the ice to escape from predators, and to raise their chicks. A temperature increase of 2. 1 degrees Celsius will jeopardize forty percent of the world’s Emperor Penguins. When the ice melts before the chicks have matured and grown their waterproof feathers, chicks that are swept into the ocean are likely to die. If the ice isn’t sturdy enough to last until when the chicks are ready to head out to sea, they aren’t going to be able to raise them. The loss of sea ice for adult penguins can lead to lower food availability, which can result in increased mortality. In Antarctica an Emperor colony has declined from 250 pairs to 10 pairs since 1960, due to rapid loss of the sea ice. Since global climate change has been causing the rapid melting of sea ice, the amount of krill in the southern oceans has decreased in recent years. Krill in which many penguins feed upon, survive by feeding off the algae which forms on the underside of the sea ice. So the reduction in sea-ice which has resulted from climate change has meant there has been much less food for penguins to eat. If this continues to happen the Emperor Penguin population is going to keep on declining. Over fishing of krill, and fish is another factor in helping penguins become extinct. It is putting pressure on food chains and food availability for penguins. Industrial fisheries deplete the penguins’ food supply and entangle and drown the penguins in longlines and other destructive fishing gear. The more fish and krill being caught by humans the less food there is for penguins to be able to eat. Ocean acidification which is caused by the absorption of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide into the oceans is also harming penguins. Plankton is a major part of the food chain for many fish on which penguins feed. As gases are absorbed into the oceans, they become less hospitable places for plankton and other organisms to live which is less food penguins have to eat. Oil pollution kills tens of thousands of penguins annually. The oil destroys the natural water repellent on their feathers, causing the birds to become vulnerable to hypothermia. Penguins also consume the oil while trying to groom, poisoning them and causing internal organ damage. The oil also kills the penguins’ food and poisons the penguins when trying to eat contaminated fish. The banding of penguins is another issue contributing to the declining population of penguins. The first evidence that flipper bands might be causing damage to penguins came in the 1970s. Zoos reported that the bands would wound penguins’ flippers, especially during the yearly molt, when flippers enlarge. Over a ten year period, banded penguins produced thirty-nine percent fewer chicks and had a sixteen percent lower survival rate than unbanded birds. Banded penguins also had less time and energy to reproduce and care for their young because they spent more time searching for food and provisions and arrived more than two weeks late to breeding areas. The penguins wearing bands expend twenty-four percent more energy while swimming and attract the attention of predators. Rory Wilson, an ecologist at Swansea University said the extra baggage likely increased the drag penguins experienced and impaired their athletic ability. How to cite The Extinction of Penguins, Essay examples

Progressivism Essays - Theodore Roosevelt, , Term Papers

Progressivism Movements I. The Origins of Progressivism A. A Spirit of Reform in the late 1800's 1. Henry George believed that poverty could be eliminated by using land productively by everyone. Also taxing the nonproductive more than the productive. 2. Edward Bellamy believed that the government should create a trust to take care of the needs of the people rather than profit. 3. Many groups wanted change for the majority of people such as the socialist, the union members and members of municipal or city government levels. 4. Municipal reforms in the late 1800's and early 1900's that gave cities limited self-rule rather than state rule are known as Home Rule. B. Progressivism Takes Hold 1. Progressivism aspects of reform from many programs and other movements. 2. Because they were afraid of losing their high standard of living, progressives' were afraid of revolution. 3. Progressives believed that the government should play a bigger role in regulating transportation and utilities. 4. Develop better social welfare programs. 5. The suffrage movement became a big issue among women. 6. Child labor laws as well as many other things were brought about by government regulations. C. Progressive Methods 1. Journalist also helped create support by alerting the public to wrong doing or muckrakers. 2. Investigating the issue then publicizing the results putting pressure on legislators to take action is known as Systematic manner. D. Florence Kelley 1. Kelley was recommended for investigating the labor conditions around Chicago. 2. Kelley earned a law degree so that she could prosecute violators of child labor laws as well as regulations in sweatshops. 3. Kelley believed in municipal reforms after a political favor placed another inspector in her place. 4. 1899 National Consumers League was organized (NCL) II. Progressivism: Its Legislative Impacts A. Urban Reform 1. Reform began mostly at the city level 2. Some machine politicians worked with reformers to improve voter registration, city services, established health programs and enforced tenant codes. 3. By 1915 two out of three cities owned utilities. 4. Welfare services were put into effect. 5. Hazen Pingree put in parks, baths, and put into effect a work-relief program. B. Reforms at the State Level 1. Progressive governors also got involved with the movement. 2. LaFollette brought about a direct primary in which voters elect nominees for upcoming elections. 3. Employers and employees negotiating differences as well as workers accident insurance became major reforms in the work place. 4. The Supreme Court said that it was illegal to set maximum hours for workers because it violated the individuals right to make a contract with the employer - 1905 Lochner vs. New York. 5. The Supreme Court upheld a decision that limited women's work hours to 10 hours per day - 1905 Muller vs. Oregon. 6. The National Child Labor Committee convinced about 30 states to abolish Child Labor by 1907 . 7. In 1912 minimum wage for women and children was put into effect in Massachusetts. 8. Women were replaced with men because they would work longer for less wages 9. Women's push for voting rights was stifled by the belief that females are physically weaker. D. Reforms at the Federal Level 1. The United Mine Workers called a strike lasting until Teddy Roosevelt insisted that both sides submit to arbitration - May, 1902. 2. A process in which an impartial third party decides on a legally binding solution is known as arbitration. 3. Teddy Roosevelt threatened to use the army to take over the mines if the owners didn't accept the agreement. 4. "Square Deal" reduced miner's hours from 10 to 9 and gave the miners a 10% raise while not officially recognizing the minor's union. 5. The Hepburn Act authorized the IEC to limit rates if the shippers complained them unfair - 1906. 6. The Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act required accurate labeling of ingredients, strict sanitary conditions, and a rating system for meats - 1906. 7. Holding companies are corporations that hold the stocks and bonds of numerous companies thus achieving a monopoly. 8. John Muir and John Wesley Powell urged congress, in 1872, to establish Yellow Stone as the United States first national park. 9. Yosemite in California became a national park in 1890. 10. A National Reclamation Act (1902) aimed at planning and developing irrigation projects aroused controversy between city residents and farmers over use or water. 11. 1912 the United States government set up a Children's Bureau within the Department of Labor. 12. Women's Bureau was also established in 1920. 13. Mary Anderson and Julia

Genetic Engineering, history and future Essays - Molecular Biology

Genetic Engineering, history and future Essays - Molecular Biology Genetic Engineering, history and future Altering the Face of Science Science is a creature that continues to evolve at a much higher rate than the beings that gave it birth. The transformation time from tree-shrew, to ape, to human far exceeds the time from analytical engine, to calculator, to computer. But science, in the past, has always remained distant. It has allowed for advances in production, transportation, and even entertainment, but never in history will science be able to so deeply affect our lives as genetic engineering will undoubtedly do. With the birth of this new technology, scientific extremists and anti-technologists have risen in arms to block its budding future. Spreading fear by misinterpretation of facts, they promote their hidden agendas in the halls of the United States congress. Genetic engineering is a safe and powerful tool that will yield unprecedented results, specifically in the field of medicine. It will usher in a world where gene defects, bacterial disease, and even aging are a thing of the past. By understanding genetic engineering and its history, discovering its possibilities, and answering the moral and safety questions it brings forth, the blanket of fear covering this remarkable technical miracle can be lifted. The first step to understanding genetic engineering, and embracing its possibilities for society, is to obtain a rough knowledge base of its history and method. The basis for altering the evolutionary process is dependant on the understanding of how individuals pass on characteristics to their offspring. Genetics achieved its first foothold on the secrets of nature's evolutionary process when an Austrian monk named Gregor Mendel developed the first "laws of heredity." Using these laws, scientists studied the characteristics of organisms for most of the next one hundred years following Mendel's discovery. These early studies concluded that each organism has two sets of character determinants, or genes (Stableford 16). For instance, in regards to eye color, a child could receive one set of genes from his father that were encoded one blue, and the other brown. The same child could also receive two brown genes from his mother. The conclusion for this inheritance would be the child has a three in four chance of having brown eyes, and a one in three chance of having blue eyes (Stableford 16). Genes are transmitted through chromosomes which reside in the nucleus of every living organism's cells. Each chromosome is made up of fine strands of deoxyribonucleic acids, or DNA. The information carried on the DNA determines the cells function within the organism. Sex cells are the only cells that contain a complete DNA map of the organism, therefore, "the structure of a DNA molecule or combination of DNA molecules determines the shape, form, and function of the [organism's] offspring " (Lewin 1). DNA discovery is attributed to the research of three scientists, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, and James Dewey Watson in 1951. They were all later accredited with the Nobel Price in physiology and medicine in 1962 (Lewin 1). "The new science of genetic engineering aims to take a dramatic short cut in the slow process of evolution" (Stableford 25). In essence, scientists aim to remove one gene from an organism's DNA, and place it into the DNA of another organism. This would create a new DNA strand, full of new encoded instructions; a strand that would have taken Mother Nature millions of years of natural selection to develop. Isolating and removing a desired gene from a DNA strand involves many different tools. DNA can be broken up by exposing it to ultra-high-frequency sound waves, but this is an extremely inaccurate way of isolating a desirable DNA section (Stableford 26). A more accurate way of DNA splicing is the use of "restriction enzymes, which are produced by various species of bacteria" (Clarke 1). The restriction enzymes cut the DNA strand at a particular location called a nucleotide base, which makes up a DNA molecule. Now that the desired portion of the DNA is cut out, it can be joined to another strand of DNA by using enzymes called ligases. The final important step in the creation of a new DNA strand is giving it the ability to self-replicate. This can be accomplished by using special pieces of DNA, called vectors, that permit the generation of multiple copies of a total DNA strand and fusing it to the newly created DNA structure. Another newly developed method, called polymerase chain reaction, allows for faster replication of DNA

War of 1812 USS Constitution

War of 1812 USS Constitution Shorn of the protection of the Royal Navy, the merchant marine of the young United States began to suffer attacks from North African Barbary pirates in the mid-1780s. In response, President George Washington signed the Naval Act of 1794. This authorized the building of six frigates with the restriction that construction would halt if a peace agreement was reached. Designed by Joshua Humphreys, the construction of the vessels was assigned to various ports on the East Coast. The frigate assigned to Boston was dubbed USS Constitution and was laid down at Edmund Hartts yard on November 1, 1794. Aware that the U.S. Navy would be unable to match the fleets of Britain and France, Humphreys designed his frigates to be able to overpower similar foreign ships but still be fast enough to escape larger ships of the line. Possessing a long keel and narrow beam, Constitutions framing was made of live oak and included diagonal riders which increased the hulls strength and aided in preventing hogging. Heavily planked, Constitutions hull was stronger than similar vessels of its class. Copper bolts and other hardware for the vessel were made by Paul Revere. Key Facts Nation: United StatesBuilder: Edmund Hartts Shipyard, Boston, MALaunched: October 21, 1797Maiden Voyage: July 22, 1798Fate: Museum ship at Boston, MA Specifications of the USS Constitution Ship Type: FrigateDisplacement: 2,200 tonsLength: 175 ft. (waterline)Beam: 43.5 ft.Draft: 21 ft. - 23 ft.Complement: 450Speed: 13 knots Armament 30 x 24-pdrs2 x 24-pdrs (bow chasers)20 x 32-pdr carronades USS Constitution The Quasi-War Though a peace settlement was reached with Algiers in 1796, Washington permitted the three ships nearest completion to be finished. As one of the three, Constitution was launched, with some difficulty, on October 21, 1797. Completed the following year, the frigate readied for service under the command of Captain Samuel Nicholson. Though rated at forty-four guns, Constitution typically mounted around fifty. Putting to sea on July 22, 1798, Constitution began patrols to protect American commerce during the Quasi-War with France. Operating on the East Coast and in the Caribbean, Constitution conducted escort duty and patrolled for French privateers and warships. The highlight of its Quasi-War service came on May 11, 1799 when Constitutions sailors and marines, led by Lieutenant Isaac Hull, seized the French privateer Sandwich near Puerto Plata, Santo Domingo. Continuing its patrols after the conflict ended in 1800, Constitution returned to Boston two years later and was placed in ordinary. This proved brief as the frigate was re-commissioned for service in the First Barbary War in May 1803. USS Constitution and the First Barbary War Commanded by Captain Edward Preble, Constitution arrived at Gibraltar on September 12 and was joined by additional American ships. Crossing to Tangier, Preble exacted a peace treaty before departing on October 14. Overseeing American efforts against the Barbary states, Preble began a blockade of Tripoli and worked to free the crew of USS Philadelphia (36 guns) which had run aground in the harbor on October 31. Unwilling to allow the Tripolitans to keep Philadelphia, Preble dispatched Lieutenant Stephen Decatur on a daring mission which destroyed the frigate on February 16, 1804. Through the summer, Preble mounted attacks against Tripoli with small gunboats and used his frigates to provide fire support. In September, Preble was replaced in overall command by Commodore Samuel Barron. Two months later, he turned command of Constitution over to Captain John Rodgers. Following the American victory at the Battle of Derna in May 1805, a peace treaty with Tripoli was signed aboard Constitution on June 3. The American squadron then moved to Tunis where a similar agreement was obtained. With peace in the region, Constitution remained in the Mediterranean until returning in late 1807. USS Constitution  and the War of 1812 During the winter of 1808, Rodgers supervised a major overhaul of the ship until passing command to Hull, now a captain, in June 1810. After a cruise to Europe in 1811-1812, Constitution was in the Chesapeake Bay when news arrived that the War of 1812 had begun. Departing the bay, Hull sailed north with the goal of joining a squadron that Rodgers was assembling. While off the coast of New Jersey, Constitution was spotted by a group of British warships. Pursued for over two days in light winds, Hull used a variety of tactics, including kedge anchors, to escape. Arriving at Boston, Constitution quickly resupplied before sailing on August 2. Moving northeast, Hull captured three British merchantmen and learned that a British frigate was sailing to the south. Moving to intercept, Constitution encountered HMS Guerriere (38) on August 19. In a sharp fight, Constitution dismasted its opponent and forced it to surrender. During the battle, several of Guerrieres cannon balls were seen to bounce off Constitutions thick sides leading it to earn the nickname Old Ironsides. Returning to port, Hull and his crew were hailed as heroes. On September 8, Captain William Bainbridge took command and Constitution returned to sea. Sailing south with the sloop of war USS Hornet, Bainbridge blockaded the corvette HMS Bonne Citoyenne (20) at Salvador, Brazil. Leaving Hornet to watch the port, he maneuvered offshore seeking prizes. On December 29, Constitution spotted the frigate HMS Java (38). Engaging, Bainbridge captured the British ship after causing its foremast to collapse. Needing repairs, Bainbridge returned to Boston, arriving in February 1813. Requiring an overhaul, Constitution entered the yard and work began under the guidance of Captain Charles Stewart. Sailing for the Caribbean on December 31, Stewart captured five British merchant ships and HMS Pictou (14) before being forced back to port due to issues with the main mast. Pursued north, he ran into Marblehead harbor before slipping down the coast to Boston. Blockaded at Boston until December 1814, Constitution next steered for Bermuda and then Europe. On February 20, 1815, Stewart engaged and captured the sloops of war HMS Cyane (22) and HMS Levant (20). Arriving in Brazil in April, Stewart learned of the wars end and returned to New York. Later Career of the USS Constitution With the end of the war, Constitution was laid up at Boston. Re-commissioned in 1820, it served in the Mediterranean Squadron until 1828. Two years later, an erroneous rumor that the U.S. Navy intended to scrap the ship led to public outrage and caused Oliver Wendell Holmes to pen the poem Old Ironsides. Repeatedly overhauled, Constitution saw service in the Mediterranean and Pacific during the 1830s before embarking on an around the world cruise in 1844-1846. Following a return to the Mediterranean in 1847, Constitution served as flagship of the U.S. African Squadron from 1852 to 1855. Arriving home, the frigate became a training ship at the U.S. Naval Academy from 1860 to 1871 when it was replaced by USS Constellation (22). In 1878-1879, Constitution carried exhibits to Europe for display at the Paris Exposition. Returning, it ultimately was made a receiving ship at Portsmouth, NH. In 1900, the first efforts were made to restore the ship and seven years later it opened for tours. Heavily restored in the early 1920s, Constitution embarked on a national tour in 1931-1934. Further restored several times during the 20th century, Constitution is currently docked at Charlestown, MA as a museum ship. USS Constitution is the oldest commissioned warship in the U.S. Navy.

The ableist conflation by Joel Reynolds Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The ableist conflation by Joel Reynolds - Essay Example As many groups have done, disabled people have been engaged in what Anspach calls â€Å"identity politics†; politics that endeavor not only to change society’s conception and response to disabled people, but also to change the self-concepts of disabled people themselves. The work of disabled people in changing how they think about themselves continues, as the disability community struggles for self-definition and self-determination, as well as for civil rights. One of the most important problems facing the political struggle of people with disabilities is the necessity of developing a positive sense of identity. The very idea of a positive disability identity flies in the face of long-standing social â€Å"wisdom† about disability. The reason for this lies in the cultural beliefs about disability that have determined the status and perceptions of disabled people in our society today. Historically, disabled people were viewed as social and moral deviants, violations of the natural and cosmic order of the universe (Reynold, J). The response to such â€Å"deviance† was to protect society by separating disabled people from society in asylums, jails, basements, attics, etc. Disabled people were not considered fully human, had no role in society, and no basis for a positive social identity The theories of psychosocial identity development in onset disability, particularly minority identity development, provide a useful framework for exploring the concept of disability identity development as a minority culture phenomenon. Within the literature of identity development, few theorists have explicitly addressed the issue of disability, yet the models provide fertile ground for exploration. In contrast, an extensive body of rehabilitation literature exists that is grounded in the medical view of disability that has generated research findings that support and reinforce a medical

Raman Spectroscopy of Toluene and Fluorescence Spectroscopy of Lab Report

Raman Spectroscopy of Toluene and Fluorescence Spectroscopy of Rhodamine 6G - Lab Report Example In Raman spectroscopy, light and matter interacts. Both IR and Raman vibrational bands are described by their frequency (i.e energy), band shape, and intensity. At low frequencies, the fingerprint region is found for most compounds. Raman spectroscopy is much easier to use at low frequencies compared to IR, this is because at low frequencies very many bands are visible on the spectrum. With Raman spectroscopy, it is possible to reject the laser beam at low frequency modes; this would minimize the bands that are seen at the fingerprint region. With IR, this is not possible, and as a result the spectrum cannot be refined to reduce the congestion of peaks. Toluene (methylbenzene) has a CH3 group attached to the benzene ring, for IR spectroscopy, the CH3 group exists at just below 1500 cm-1. This is just at the start of the fingerprint region; therefore Raman spectroscopy would be much better at elucidating its structure over IR. Fluorescence is a spectrochemical method of analysis where the molecules of the analyte are excited by irradiation at a certain wavelength and emit radiation of a different wavelength. The emission spectrum provides information for both qualitative and quantitative analysis. When light of an appropriate wavelength is absorbed by a molecule (i.e., excitation), the electronic state of the molecule changes from the ground state to one of many vibrational levels in one of the excited electronic states. The excited electronic state is usually the first excited singlet state, S1 (Figure 1). Once the molecule is in this excited state, relaxation can occur through several processes. Fluorescence is one of these processes and results in the emission of light. Fluorescence corresponds to the relaxation of the molecule from the singlet excited state to the singlet ground state with emission of light. Fluorescence has short lifetime (~10-8 sec) so that in many molecules it can compete favorably with collision deactivation, intersystem crossing and